The word hydrocephalus derives from the Greek words hydro, meaning water, and cephalus, meaning head. Hydrocephalus is the result of the excessive accumulation of fluid in the brain. Traditionally, hydrocephalus has been described as a disease characterized by increased intracranial pressure (ICP), increased cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volume, and dilatation of the CSF spaces known as cerebral ventricles.
Description
Hydrocephalus is the result of an imbalance between the formation and drainage of cerebrospinal fluid. This imbalance appears when an injury or illness alters the circulation of CSF; one or more of the ventricles of the brain become enlarged as CSF accumulates. However, hydrocephalus is not a single disease entity, as a wide number of underlying diseases are responsible for causing retention of CSF, resulting in ventricular dilatation and increased intracranial pressure (ICP). In infants and children, for example, hydrocephalus usually results from a birth defect, viral infection, head injury, hemorrhage, meningitis, or tumor.
In adults, the causes of hydrocephalus include brain damage due to stroke or injury, Alzheimer's disease, or obstruction of the ventricles. Often, the cause is unknown. Conditions responsible for hydrocephalus in a fetus include infantile congenital (present at birth) hydrocephalus, hydrocephalus associated with encephalocele or myelomeningocele, posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in newborns, and postmeningitic hydrocephalus. Conditions responsible for hydrocephalus in adults include hydrocephalus following subarachnoid hemorrhage, idiopathic adult hydrocephalus, and posttraumatic hydrocephalus. Tumors can also result in hydrocephalus in both children and adults. Based on the different kind of CSF circulation in the brain, hydrocephalus can be divided into two types: communicating and non-communicating. In communicating hydrocephalus, the CSF circulation pathways are competent from the ventricles inside of the brain to the fluid spaces just below the third ventricle. Non-communicating (obstructive) hydrocephalus refers to hydrocephalus that
develops from a blockage of the normal circulation of CSF within the brain. In most cases, it refers to a blockage between the third and fourth ventricles.
Demographics
Overall incidence of infantile hydrocephalus is approximately one to two per 1,000 live births. The overall prevalence of hydrocephalus in the United States is about 0.5%. When cases of spina bifida are included, congenital hydrocephalus occurs in two to five births per 1,000 births. The incidence of acquired hydrocephalus in adults is not known because it occurs as a result of injury, illness, or environmental factors. Normal pressure hydrocephalus was found to be significantly more prevalent in males, and can occur in adults of any age group. The age distribution in children and teenagers is disputed.
Causes and symptoms
Approximately 16 oz (500 ml) of CSF are formed within the brain each day, by cells located on the wall of the four ventricles in the brain. Once formed, CSF circulates among all the ventricles before it is absorbed. The normal adult volume of circulating CSF is about 2 oz (150 ml). The CSF turnover rate is more than three times per day. Because production is independent of absorption, reduced absorption causes CSF to accumulate within the ventricles.
Hydrocephalus can be subdivided into three forms, involving the following:
Disorders of cerebrospinal fluid circulation. Tumors, hemorrhages, congenital malformations, and infections can cause such obstructions in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
Disorders of cerebrospinal fluid absorption, resulting from diseases such as the superior vena cava syndrome and sinus thrombosis.
Disorders of cerebrospinal fluid production: This is the less common form of hydrocephalus resulting from tumors that secrete cerebrospinal fluid in excess of its absorption.
Congenital hydrocephalus is thought to be caused by a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors. The origin of hydrocephalus in congenital cases is unknown. Very few cases (less than 2%) are inherited (X-linked hydrocephalus). The most common causes of hydrocephalus in acquired cases are tumor obstruction, trauma, intracranial hemorrhage, and infection.
The two most common adult forms of hydrocephalus are hydrocephalus ex-vacuo and normal pressure hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus ex-vacuo occurs when a stroke or injury damages the brain, yielding a brain substance. Although there is more CSF than usual, the CSF pressure may or may not be elevated. Normal pressure hydrocephalus is an abnormal increase of CSF in the brain's ventricles due to the gradual blockage of the CSF-draining pathways. This may result from a subarachnoid hemorrhage, head trauma, infection, tumor, or complications of surgery. The ventricles enlarge to handle the increased volume of the CSF, and the compression of the brain from within by the fluid-filled ventricles destroys or damages brain tissue. Fluctuation of CSF pressure from high to normal to low can also be present.
For congenital-onset hydrocephalus, early symptoms include enlargement of the head (increased head circumference), bulging fontanelles (soft spots) with or without enlargement of the head size, separation of sutures (the flexible and fibrous joints between the skull bones of an infant), and vomiting. Symptoms of continued hydrocephalus include irritability and muscle spasticity. Late symptoms of congenital-onset hydrocephalus seen in children up to five years of age include decreased mental function, delayed development, slow or restricted movement, difficulty feeding, lethargy, and delayed growth.
In children, symptoms depend on the amount of damage caused by ICP. Symptoms may be similar to many of those in infants or may include headache, vomiting, vision changes such as crossed eyes, uncontrolled eye movements, loss of coordination, poor gait (walking pattern), mental confusion, or psychosis. For adult-onset hydrocephalus, headaches and nausea are the most common symptoms. Other signs of the condition include difficulty focusing the eyes, unsteady gait, weakness of the legs, sudden falls, and a distinctive inability to walk forward. As hydrocephalus progresses, decreased mental activity appears, including lethargy, apathy, impaired memory, and speech problems. Urinary and bowel incontinence can also occur. During the final stage, dementia involving loss of movement, sensory functions, and cognitive abilities may result.
Diagnosis
Ultrasound can be used to diagnose prenatal hydrocephalus. Although fetal hydrocephalus may be an isolated finding, it is more frequently found along with other cerebral anomalies, including neural tube defects. Diagnosis after birth may be suggested by symptoms; however, imaging studies of the brain are the mainstay of diagnosis. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reveal enlarged ventricles and may indicate a specific cause of hydrocephalus, such as a tumor or hemorrhage. The presence of papilledema (elevation or swelling of the optic disc) also indicates that hydrocephalus that is well developed. In rare cases, long-standing hydrocephalus causes blindness.
Small abnormalities that may not be seen with CT scanning, such as cysts and abscesses, are often seen with MRI. These studies can also help the neurosurgeon differentiate between communicating and non-communicating hydrocephalus. In cases of suspected normal pressure hydrocephalus, a lumbar puncture (spinal tap) may help determine CSF pressure. Also, a cisternagram can be useful to evaluate the dynamics of CSF flow in the brain and spinal chord. Cisternography can reveal CSF concentration, obstruction, leakage, and pressure. Also, certain biochemical markers in the blood have been described in the disease. They include increased neurofilament light protein (NFL) and tau protein, both markers of neuronal degeneration; increased myeline basic protein (a marker of demyelination; and albumin); and a marker of the blood-brain barrier function.
Treatment team
Treatment of hydrocephalus for children or adults will likely involve a neurologist, neurosurgeon, obstetrician, pediatrician, and specialty nurses and physical therapists.
Treatment
Medical treatment is first aimed at reducing intracranial pressure, while the need for a more permanent solution is determined. Reduction of fluid intake and administration of drugs such as mannitol, glycerol, urea (drugs with an osmotic effect), or furosemide (a diuretic) are able to reduce ICP and CSF production.
External drainage of the CSF is useful for urgent reduction of intracranial pressure, as well as of ventricular or subarachnoid hemorrhage. Complications include overdrainage, blocked tube, or bacterial contamination. The placement of a permanent ventricular shunt (internal shunting) is a common procedure. Around 33,000 shunts are placed in the United States each year; almost half of them to replace previous shunt devices. CSF from the ventricles in the brain is usually shunted to the peritoneum, pleura, ureter, bladder, or vascular spaces such as the jugular or subclavian veins. Most shunts are connected to the peritoneum. Some shunts operate according to intracranial pressure by using a valve system able to regulate the flow at a pressure close to the normal values of ICP. Others are programmable and can be adjusted to open at a given ICP. Complications include overdrainage that may cause intracranial hypotension, subdural hematoma, shunt occlusion, and infection. The risk of shunt failure is greater within the first year (between 25–40% of shunts must be replaced). The subsequent failure rate is around 5% for each year.
Other surgical procedures include, in some cases, choroid plexectomy, third ventriculostomy, and ventricular reservoir. Ventricular reservoir is basically a catheter inserted into a ventricle of the brain to draw CSF. This procedure is much simpler than placing a full shunt system and is used to provide temporary control of ICP until a full shunt can be placed.
Recovery and rehabilitation
Hydrocephalus is a chronic condition, and clinical symptoms are based on the time of insurgence of the disease. With appropriate, early treatment, a normal lifespan with few limitations can be reached. After surgery, specially trained medical professionals carefully monitor the patient. Some symptoms such as headaches may disappear immediately due to the release of excess pressure. The symptoms associated with normal pressure hydrocephalus (walking difficulties, mild dementia, poor bladder control) may improve quickly, or may take weeks to months to improve. In some patients, little or no improvement is also possible.
The length of the patient's hospital stay will be determined by the rate of recovery. If neurological problems persist, rehabilitation may be required to further the patient's improvement. However, recovery may be limited by the extent of the damage already caused by the hydrocephalus. Because hydrocephalus is an ongoing condition, patients do require long-term follow up. Follow-up diagnostic tests, including CT scans, MRI, and x rays, may be performed to determine if the shunt is working correctly.
Clinical trials
Ventricular shunts are the most common surgical treatment for hydrocephalus and appear to be the safest. It is possible that choroid plexectomy and third ventriculostomy may become more feasible in the future if better procedures and equipment are developed.
As of mid-2004, several clinical trials to study hydrocephalus were underway, including a trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of endoscopic choroid plexus coagulation with third ventriculostomy in the treatment of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus, sponsored by the Frenchay Hydrocephalus Research Fund. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke is sponsoring a study to establish the physiology of syringomyelia. Updated information on these and other ongoing clinical trials may be found at the National Institutes of Health website for clinical trials at <http://www.clinicaltrials.gov>.
Prognosis
Untreated hydrocephalus has a survival rate of 40–50%, with the survivors having varying degrees of intellectual, physical, and neurological disabilities. Prognosis for treated hydrocephalus varies, depending on the cause. If the child survives for one year, more than 80% will have a fairly normal lifespan. Approximately one-third will have normal intellectual function, but neurological difficulties may persist. Hydrocephalus not associated with infection has the best prognosis, and hydrocephalus caused by tumors has a very poor prognosis. About 50% of all children who receive appropriate treatment and follow up will develop IQs in the near-normal or normal range.
BOOKS
Matsumoto, Satoshi. Hydrocephalus: Pathogenesis and Treatment. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991.
The Official Parent's Sourcebook on Hydrocephalus: A Revised and Updated Directory for the Internet Age. San Diego: Icon Group International, 2002.
Toporek, Chuck, and Kellie Robinson. Hydrocephalus: A Guide for Patients, Families and Friends. Sebastopol, CA: Patient-Centered Guides, 1999.
PERIODICALS
Arriada, N., and J. Sotelo. "Review: Treatment of Hydrocephalus in Adults." Surg Neurol. (2002) Dec 58 (6): 377–84.
Davis, G. H. "Fetal Hydrocephalus." Clin Perinatol. (2003) Sep 30 (3): 531–9.
Meier, U., and C. Miethke. "Predictors of Outcome in Patients with Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus." J Clin Neurosci. (2003) Jul 10 (4): 453–9.
