The esophagus is the swallowing tube through which food passes on its way from the mouth to the stomach. The main function of this organ is to propel food down into the stomach. There is also a mechanism to prevent food from coming back up or "refluxing" from the stomach into the esophagus. Esophageal function tests are used to determine if these processes are normal or abnormal.
Purpose
The esophagus is a long, muscular tube that also has two muscles (or sphincters) at the top and bottom. All of these muscular areas must contract in an exact sequence for swallowing to proceed normally. There are three main symptoms that occur when esophageal function is abnormal: difficulty with swallowing (dysphagia), heart-burn, and chest pain.
Doctors perform a variety of tests to evaluate these symptoms. Endoscopy, which is not a test of esophageal function, is often used to determine if the lining of the esophagus has any ulcers, tumors, or areas of narrowing (strictures). Many times, however, endoscopy only shows the doctor if there is injury to the esophageal lining, and the procedure gives no information about the cause of the problem.
Therefore, in addition to endoscopy, several studies are available that measure esophageal function. There are three basic types of tests used to assess esophageal function:
Manometry is used to study the way the muscles of the esophagus contract, and is most useful for the investigation of difficulty with swallowing.
X-ray studies investigate swallowing difficulties. They either follow the progress of barium during swallowing using a fluoroscope, or they use radioactive scanning techniques.
Precautions
Pregnant patients undergoing x-ray exams should carefully review the risks and benefits with their doctors. Most x-ray exams of the gastrointestinal tract do not involve radiation levels that are harmful to the unborn baby.
Manometry
This study is designed to measure the pressure changes produced by contraction of the muscular portions of the esophagus. An abnormality in the function of any one of the segments of the swallowing tube causes difficulty in swallowing. Doctors call this symptom dysphagia. This exam is most useful in evaluating those patients whose endoscopy is negative.
During manometry, the patient swallows a thin tube carrying a device that senses changes in pressures in the esophagus. Readings are taken at rest and during swallowing. Medications are sometimes given during the study to help in the diagnosis. The results are then transmitted to recording equipment. Manometry can best identify diseases that produce disturbances of motility or contractions of the esophagus.
Esophageal pH monitoring
This procedure involves measuring the esophagus' exposure to acid that has "refluxed" from the stomach. The test is ideal for evaluating recurring heartburn or GERD. Too much acid produces not only heartburn, but also ulcers that can bleed or produce areas of narrowing (strictures) when they heal.
Normally, acid refluxes into the esophagus in only small amounts for short periods of time. A muscle called the lower esophageal sphincter prevents excessive reflux. Spontaneous contractions that increase esophageal emptying and production of saliva are other important protective mechanisms.
"pH" is the scientific term that tells just how acidic or alkaline a substance is. Researchers have shown that in the esophagus, the presence of acid is damaging only if it persists for prolonged periods. Therefore, the test has been designed to monitor the level of acidity over 24 hours, usually in the home. In this way, patients maintain their daily routine, documenting their symptoms, and at what point in their activities they occurred. During this period, a thin tube with a pH monitor remains in the esophagus to record changes. After the study, a computer is used to compare changes in acidity with symptoms reported by the patient.
Surgery is an effective and long-lasting treatment for symptoms of recurrent reflux and is the choice of many patients and doctors. pH monitoring is usually performed before surgery to confirm the diagnosis and to judge the effects of drug therapy.
X-ray tests
These fall into two categories: (1) those done with the use of barium and a fluoroscope; and (2) those performed with radioactive materials.
Studies performed with fluoroscopy are of greatest value in identifying a structural abnormality of the esophagus. Although this is not truly an esophageal function test, it does allow doctors to consider other diagnostic possibilities. Often a sandwich or marshmallow coated with barium is used to identify the site of an obstruction.
During fluoroscopy, the radiologist can observe the passage of material through the esophagus in real time, and video recordings can also be done. This is particularly useful when the swallowing symptoms appear to involve mainly the upper region of the esophagus. The most common cause of swallowing difficulties is a previous stroke, although other diseases of the neuromuscular system (like myasthenia gravis) can produce the same symptoms.
Scans using low-dose radioactive materials are useful because they are able not only to demonstrate that food passes through the esophagus more slowly than normal, but also how slow. These studies involve swallowing food coated with material that is followed by a nuclear medicine scanner. Scans are best used when other methods have failed to make a diagnosis, or if it is necessary to determine the degree of the abnormality. As of 1997, scans mainly served as research tools.
Preparation
Patients should not eat or drink for several hours before the exam. Many medications affect the esophagus; doses sometimes need to be adjusted or even stopped for a while. Patients must inform doctors of all medications taken, including over-the-counter medications (purchased without a doctor's prescription), and any known allergies.
Aftercare
For most of these studies, no special care is needed after the procedure. Patients can often go about normal daily activities following any of these tests. One exception is for those who undergo an x-ray exam with the use of barium. This can have a constipating effect and patients should ask about using a mild laxative later on.
Risks
Exposure of a fetus to x rays, especially in the first three months, is a potential risk.
Other studies of esophageal function are essentially free of any significant risk. The tubes passed during these procedures are small, and most patients adjust to them quite well. However, since medications cannot be used to relax patients, some may not tolerate the exam.
Abnormal results
Manometry is used to diagnose abnormalities related to contraction or relaxation of the various muscular regions of the esophagus. These studies cannot distinguish whether injury to either the muscle or nerves of the esophagus is producing the abnormal results. Only the final effect on esophageal muscle is identified. Results should be interpreted in light of the patient's entire medical history.
For example, there are many diseases that cause poor relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. When no cause is found, the disease is called achalasia.
Abnormal results of pH tests can confirm symptoms of heartburn or indicate a cause of chest pain (or rarely, swallowing difficulties). Doctors may want to start or change medications based on these results, or even repeat the test using different doses of medication. As noted above, these studies are indicated before surgical treatment of GERD.
X-ray tests can only serve to document an abnormality, and they are far from perfect. If they are negative, then other studies are often needed.
BOOKS
Clouse, Ray E., and N. E. Diamant. "Motor Physiology and Motor Disorders of the Esophagus." In Sleisenger & Ford-tran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease, ed. Mark Feldman, et al. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1997.
PERIODICALS
Dent, John, and Richard H. Holloway. "Esophageal Motility and Reflux Testing." Gastroenterology Clinics of North America 25 (Mar. 1996): 51-73.
Mittal, Ravinder K., and David H. Balaban. "The Esophagogastric Junction." New England Journal of Medicine 336 (27 Mar. 1997): 924-932.
