Cardiovascular Disease Health Article

Conclusion

Surgical intervention may restore cardiovascular function. Vessels may be opened by angioplasty or repaired by the use of grafts or stents, heart valves can be repaired or replaced with artificial valves, and pacemakers or drugs may aid heart function. A heart transplant may be an individual's last resort. Many large-scale international studies have focused on preventing cardiovascular disease through smoking cessation, healthful eating, physical activity, hypertension and cholesterol control, health education, and media campaigns. These include the Stanford Three City, the Stanford Five City Projects, the Framingham Heart Study, the Bogalusa Heart Study, the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT), Active Australia, the Whickham Study (based on the Framingham model), and the North Karelia Study (Finland). Small, gradual changes in diet and exercise and smoking cessation are the best way to produce long-term effects.

SEE ALSO ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; HEART DISEASE.

Teresa Lyles

Bibliography

Bauman, A.; Bellow, B.; Owen, N.; and Vita, P. (2001). "Impact of an Australian Mass Media Campaign Targeting Physical Activity in 1998." American Journal of Preventive Medicine 21:41–47.

Bijnen, F. C.; Caspersen, C. J.; Feskens, E. J.; Saris, W. H.; Mosterd, W. L.; and Kromhout, D. (1998). "Physical Activity and 10-Year Mortality from Cardiovascular Diseases and All Causes." Archives of Internal Medicine 158(14):1499–1505.

Elward, K., and Larson, E. K. (1992). "Benefits of Exercise for Older Adults: A Review of Existing Evidence and Current Recommendations for the General Population." Journal of Clinical Gerontology Medicine 8(1):35–50.

Fortman, S. P., and Varady, A. N. (2000). "Effects of a Community-Wide Health Education Program on Cardiovascular Disease Morbidity and Mortality: The Stanford Five-City Project." American Journal of Epidemiology 152:316–323.

Fox, S. I. (1999). Human Physiology, 6th edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Insel, P. M., and Roth, W. T. (2004). "Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer." In Core Concepts in Health, 9th (brief) edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Internet Resources

American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. "Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2003 Update." Available from <http://www.americanheart.org>

American Heart Association. "Common Cardiovascular Diseases." Available from <http://americanheart.org/stroke>

Bogalusa Heart Study (n.d.). Tulane Center for Cardiovascular Health. Available from <http://www.som.tulane.edu/cardiohealth>

HeartCenterOnline. "Coronary Artery." Available from <http://www.heartcenteronline.com/myheartdr>

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. "Framingham Heart Study: 50 Years of Research Success." Available from <http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov>

National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. "Action Guide for Healthy Eating." Available from <http://www.5aday.nci.nih.gov/actionguide>

National Public Health Partnership of Australia. "Developing an Active Australia: A Framework for Action for Physical Activity and Health." Available from <http://www.health.gov.au/pubhlth>

World Health Organization. "Cardiovascular Death and Disability Can Be Reduced More than 50 Percent." Available from <http://www.who.int/mediacentre>