Allergy Tests Health Article

Definition

Allergy tests indicate a person's allergic sensitivity to commonly encountered environmental substances.

Purpose

Allergy is a reaction of the immune system. Normally, the immune system responds to foreign microorganisms and particles, like pollen or dust, by producing specific proteins called antibodies that are capable of binding to identifying molecules, or antigens, on the foreign organisms. This reaction between antibody and antigen sets off a series of reactions designed to protect the body from infection. Sometimes, this same series of reactions is triggered by harmless, everyday substances. This is the condition known as allergy, and the offending substance is called an allergen. Common inhaled allergens include pollen, dust, and insect parts from tiny house mites. Common food allergens include nuts, fish, and milk.

Allergic reactions involve a special set of cells in the immune system known as mast cells. Mast cells serve as guards in the tissues where the body meets the outside world: the skin, the mucous membranes of the eyes and other areas, and the linings of the respiratory and digestive systems. Mast cells display a special type of antibody, called immunoglobulin type E (IgE), on their surface. Inside, mast cells store reactive chemicals in small packets, called granules. When the antibodies encounter allergens, they trigger the release of granules, which spill out their chemicals onto neighboring cells, including blood vessels and nerve cells. One of these chemicals, histamine, binds to the surfaces of these other cells, through special proteins called histamine receptors. Interaction of histamine with receptors on blood vessels causes neighboring cells to become leaky, leading to the fluid collection, swelling, and increased redness characteristic of a runny nose and red, irritated eyes. Histamine also stimulates pain receptors, causing the itchy, scratchy nose, eyes, and throat common in allergic rhinitis.

The particular allergens to which a person is sensitive can be determined through allergy testing. Allergy tests may be performed on the skin or using blood serum in a test tube. During skin tests, potential allergens are placed on the skin and the reaction is observed. In radio-allergosorbent allergy testing (RAST), a patient's blood serum is combined with allergen in a test tube to determine if serum antibodies react with the allergen. Provocation testing involves direct exposure to a likely allergen, either through inhalation or ingestion. Positive reactions from any of these tests may be used to narrow the candidates for the actual allergen causing the allergy.

Identification of the allergenic substance may allow the patient to avoid the substance and reduce allergic reactions. In addition, allergy testing may be done in those with asthma that is difficult to manage, eczema, or skin rashes to determine if an allergy is causing the condition or making it worse. Allergy tests may also be done before allergen desensitization to ensure the safety of more extensive exposure.

Skin testing is the most common type of allergy test. There are two forms: percutaneous and intradermal. In percutaneous or prick testing, allergen solutions are placed on the skin, and the skin is then pricked with a needle, allowing the allergen to enter the skin and become exposed to mast cells. Scratch testing, in which the skin is scratched instead of punctured, is used less often. Intradermal testing involves directly injecting allergen solutions into the skin. In both tests, a reddened, swollen spot develops at the injection site for each sub-stance to which the person is sensitive. Skin reactivity is seen for allergens regardless of whether they usually affect the skin. In other words, airborne and food allergens cause skin reactions equally well.

The range of allergens used for testing is chosen to reflect possible sources in the environment and may include the following:

• pollen from a variety of trees, common grasses, and weeds
• mold and fungus spores
• house dust
• house mites
• animal skin cells (dander) and saliva
• food extracts
• antibiotics
• insect venoms

Radio-allergosorbent testing (RAST) is a laboratory test performed when a person may be too sensitive to risk skin testing or when medications or skin conditions prevent it.

Provocation testing is done to positively identify suspected allergens after preliminary skin testing. A purified preparation of the allergen is inhaled or ingested in increasing concentrations to determine if it will provoke a response. Food testing is much more tedious than inhalation testing, since full passage through the digestive system may take a day or more.