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Infectious disease of brain
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The following Clinical Topic Tour provides an overview of stroke and was adapted from materials published by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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A stroke is the sudden death of brain cells in a localized area due to inadequate blood flow.A stroke occurs when blood flow is interrupted to part of the brain. Without blood to supply oxygen and nutrients and to remove waste products, brain cell...
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A stroke is an interruption of the blood supply to any part of the brain. A stroke is sometimes called a"brain attack.".Cerebrovascular disease; CVA; Cerebral infarction; Cerebral hemorrhage; Ischemic stroke; Stroke- ischemic.Approximately every 4...
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During a stroke, blood stops flowing to part of the brain. This can damage areas in the brain that control the rest of the body. Get help right away if any of these symptoms come on suddenly, even if the symptoms don't last.
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Stroke is an increasing public health concern throughout the world as the leading cause of long-term disability. There is estimated to be over 3.5 million survivors of stroke in the United States.
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A stroke is an interruption of blood circulation to the brain causing a neurologic deficit reflecting the area of the brain affected. Stroke can be ischemic or hemorrhagic. 1 Ischemic stroke is most prevalent.
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A stroke is the sudden death of brain cells in a localized area due to inadequate blood flow.A stroke occurs when blood flow is interrupted to part of the brain. Without blood to supply oxygen and nutrients and to remove waste products, brain cell...
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including history, statistics, symptoms, types, effects, diagnostic, treatment, and rehabilitation information
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including history, statistics, symptoms, types, effects, diagnostic, treatment, and rehabilitation information
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including history, statistics, symptoms, types, effects, diagnostic, treatment, and rehabilitation information
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including how to respond in a stroke emergency
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including history, statistics, symptoms, types, effects, diagnostic, treatment, and rehabilitation information
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including how to respond in a stroke emergency
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Detailed information on a stroke's effects on different portions of the brain The effects of stroke vary from person to person based on the type, severity, and location of the stroke. The brain is extremely complex and each area of the brain is responsible for a special function or ability. When an area of the brain is damaged, which typically occurs with a stroke, an impairment may result. An impairment is the loss of normal function of part of the body. Sometimes, an impairment may result in a disability, or inability to perform an activity in a normal way.
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This report provides current information about stroke prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation.
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There are various clinical and pathological subtypes of stroke, and identification of the subtype is necessary for correct management. Investigations Imaging Brain imaging should be performed within the first 48 hours of the onset of stroke (see below), to determine whether the stroke is haemorrhagic or ischaemic and to exclude other causes (e.g. tumour).
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Stroke, or cerebrovascular accident(CVA), is the third leading cause of death(after heart disease and cancer) in the United States and the industrialized countries of the world. The term"stroke," which comes from subjects being suddenly"struck dow...
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Women who are obese or who have gained more than 44 pounds since they were 18 years old are about two-and-a-half times more likely to suffer an ischemic stroke than lean women who have not gained a lot of weight.
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Detailed information on a stroke's effects on different portions of the brain The effects of stroke vary from person to person based on the type, severity, and location of the stroke. The brain is extremely complex and each area of the brain is responsible for a special function or ability. When an area of the brain is damaged, which typically occurs with a stroke, an impairment may result. An impairment is the loss of normal function of part of the body. Sometimes, an impairment may result in a disability, or inability to perform an activity in a normal way.
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Getting your life back after having a stroke can be hard work and a slow process. But it's important to know that in most cases, you can do it.
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Cerebrovascular accident(CVA) is the medical term for what is commonly termed a stroke. It refers to the injury to the brain that occurs when flow of blood to brain tissue is interrupted by a clogged or ruptured artery, causing brain tissue to die...
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More women than men are victims of stroke, and the consequences for survivors are more serious in women. Medication to dissolve blood clots is available, but must be administered within the first three hours after a stroke to be most effective.
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A ministroke, or transient ischemic attack (TIA), is a brief episode of stroke symptoms caused by temporary interruption of blood flow to the brain. Most people suffer TIAs without realizing it.
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Detailed information on the history of stroke, also called brain attack Hippocrates, the father of medicine, first recognized stroke over 2,400 years ago. At this time stroke was called apoplexy, which means "struck down by violence" in Greek. This was due to the fact that a person developed sudden paralysis and change in well-being. Physicians had little knowledge of the anatomy and function of the brain, the cause of stroke, or how to treat it.
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Detailed information on the history of stroke, also called brain attack Hippocrates, the father of medicine, first recognized stroke over 2,400 years ago. At this time stroke was called apoplexy, which means "struck down by violence" in Greek. This was due to the fact that a person developed sudden paralysis and change in well-being. Physicians had little knowledge of the anatomy and function of the brain, the cause of stroke, or how to treat it.
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Stroke may cause physical and mental difficulties. But the good news is that you can recoup some or all of your previous abilities.
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A stroke, also called a cerebral infarction, is a life-threatening condition marked by a sudden disruption in the blood supply to the brain.A disruption in the blood supply to the brain starves the brain of oxygen-rich blood and causes the nerve c...
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including types of stroke
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including stroke diagnosis
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When your loved one returns home, you'll both need time to adjust. You and the patient will have to transfer the skills learned in rehab to a new location. Be patient with your loved one and with yourself. Planning ahead can help long-term recovery go more smoothly.
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A stroke is a medical emergency. That's why some doctors call strokes "brain attacks.”
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Strokes often result in long-term health problems, and sometimes death. But there are steps you can take to help prevent them.
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including types of stroke
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The habits and behaviors of a healthy lifestyle can also reduce the risk of stroke: don't smoke, exercise, keep cholesterol and blood presure as low as possible, and eat a healthy diet.
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A stroke, also called a cerebral vascular accident(CVA), is the sudden death of cells in a specific area of the brain due to inadequate blood flow.A stroke occurs when blood flow is interrupted to a part of the brain, either when an artery bursts ...
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Medication to control high blood pressure only works if you take it.Medication to control high blood pressure only works if you take it. If you stop taking antihypertensive medication without discussing it with your doctor, you put yourself at risk for a stroke.
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The carotid arteries are large blood vessels that carry blood to the brain. When these arteries are healthy, the brain gets all the oxygen and nutrients it needs to function well. If the carotid arteries are damaged, however, it can greatly increase your chances of stroke. This is a sudden loss of brain function caused by a lack of blood flow.
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I have a deep muscle massage every month or so. After my sister had a stroke, I started worrying that my massages could loosen any plaque in my carotid arteries, which could make me have a stroke. Could this happen?
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including stroke diagnosis
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including stroke treatment
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including risk factors for stroke
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including signs and symptoms of stroke emergency
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including stroke treatment
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including risk factors for stroke
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including signs and symptoms of stroke emergency
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Stroke is the common name for the injury to the brain that occurs when the flow of blood to brain tissue is interrupted by a clogged or burst artery. Arterial blood carries oxygen and nutrition to the cells of the body.
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including stroke rehabilitation
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Ultrasound carotid screening for stroke risk is being promoted as a simple detection tool, but the test does not always identify those at risk, and some doctors feel that treating the factors that contribute to risk is more beneficial to overall health.
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Detailed information on stroke, also called brain attack, including stroke rehabilitation
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Strokes occur when something interferes with the normal flow of blood to the central nervous system. Stroke is the third-leading cause of death in the United States after heart disease and cancer.
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The complex relationship between cholesterol and the brain affects many areas, including possible connections to depression, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease.
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An explanation of the two-way relationship between depression and stroke. Depressed people are at higher risk for a stroke, but depression often precedes as well as follows a stroke.
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A tiny wire curlicue that can snare blood clots may help more people get emergency treatment for a stroke.
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After a stroke, the body can often recover some functions on its own if medical care is received promptly, but many people also need some form of rehabilatation program or physical, speech, or occupational therapy.
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The Women's Health Study, released in March 2005, provides surprising new information about the health benefits of aspirin for women.
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A new study suggests an aspirin before bed may lower blood pressure while protecting against heart attack and stroke.
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My father had a stroke that left him paralyzed on one side. He's aware of what's going on and can talk some, but he has severe spasticity in his left elbow, shoulder, and hand, along with muscle atrophy. Would Botox injections help his painful spasms?
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People who are at risk for heart disease may be fine for some time, until a stressful event or situation acts as a trigger for a heart attack or stroke. Even in those with heart disease, some of these triggers can be minimized or avoided.
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HDL, the "good" cholesterol, helps prevent heart disease, but there is some evidence that suggests it may also help protect against strokes, and possibly dementia as well.
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This article discusses the drug Plavix: what it does; who needs it; and, the risks and benefits.
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The benefits of aspirin for those at risk for heart disease are clear, but for women under 65 who are not at risk, there is no benefit to a daily aspirin. There is evidence that taking aspirin regularly may reduce the risk of stroke, regardless of age.
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Aspirin is safe for some healthy women over age 65 to take to prevent stroke and heart attack, but probably not for most younger women.
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A Harvard Medical School doctor answers your question about the appropriate doctor to see after suffering a stroke.
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People at risk for heart attack or stroke will likely benefit from taking low-dose daily aspirin, but for some there are greater risks (such as ulcers or gastrointestinal bleeding) that outweigh aspirin's help.
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Statistics profiling the occurrence of stroke Consider the following statistics regarding strokes:
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Statistics profiling the occurrence of stroke Consider the following statistics regarding strokes:
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Is there any chance of recovery from right arm paralysis caused by a stroke after one year has passed?
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An expert shares his beliefs about how best to treat and avoid cancer, heart disease, and other chronic diseases.
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Recognizing signs of stroke can speed treatment. Nonmedical personnel can use these guidelines as possible warning signs that a stroke has occurred.
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A Harvard Medical School physician answers your question about the dangers of a small stroke affecting the eyes.
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Stroke survivors often suffer pain afterward, and it often goes untreated. It may be necessary to ask for a referral to a pain specialist.
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Heart disease does not always manifest with a sudden, traumatic event. People who are already taking medication are more likely to experience a less severe attack, such as angina or a minor stroke.
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A Harvard Medical School physician answers your question about proper treatment for a transient ischemic attack (TIA).
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Transient ischemic attacks???or mini-strokes???may be a harbinger of more serious problems and shouldn't be dismissed.
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Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), while seemingly insignificant, often lead to strokes within a short time span. If you experience a TIA or have symptoms that suggest one, take it seriously and seek treatment right away.
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Find out how much you know about strokes and what causes them.
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Strokes don't have to be disabling or deadly. Knowing the warning signs of a stroke and acting quickly may help you or your loved one escape the damaging effects of a "brain attack."
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Although their symptoms and effects can be similar—and confusing—strokes and heart attacks are two different medical problems.
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About 80 percent of people who have a stroke can benefit from some form of rehabilitation.
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The good news about a stroke is that it can be successfully treated. But there's a catch. For the best outcome, a stroke must be diagnosed and treated within about three hours after symptoms begin.
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A stroke can cause problems with speech, vision, memory, balance or coordination. It can leave part of the body weakened or paralyzed, among other physical problems.
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Detailed information on dehydration and heat stroke, including symptoms, treatment, and prevention
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Radiotherapy is the use of high-energy penetrating radiation(x rays, gamma rays, proton rays, and neutron rays) to kill cancer cells.The primary purpose of radiotherapy is to eliminate or shrink localized cancers. It is also sometimes used to trea...
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Radiation and radioisotopes are extensively used medications to allow physicians to image internal structures and processes in vivo(in the living body) with a minimum of invasion to the patient. Higher doses of radiation are also used as means to ...
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Ultraviolet radiation(UVR) comprises a spectrum of electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths, subdivided for convenience into three bands, which are measured in nanometers(nm):(1) UVA("black light"), 315 to 400 nm;(2) UVB, 280 to 315 nm; and(...
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Nonionizing radiation, in contrast to ionizing radiation, is electromagnetic radiation that does not have sufficient energy to remove electrons from an atom or molecules to form an ion(or charged particle) during a collision. Instead, it imparts e...
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Electromagnetic waves of extremely short wavelength(X-rays and gamma rays) and accelerated atomic particles(such as electrons, protons, neutrons, and alpha particles) deposit enough localized energy in an absorbing medium to dislodge electrons fro...
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What kind of radiation causes thyroid cancer? What about microwave ovens and dental x-rays?
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My father had a pacemaker implanted five years ago. He wants to purchase a new 5.8 GHz cordless phone. I have heard the cellular phones have had some interference with pacemakers; is this also true of digital cordless phones at this frequency?
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Can a breast that has undergone radiation treatment for cancer be biopsied in the future, if necessary?
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Can radiation treatments for prostate cancer damage the bladder, causing it to bleed 10 years after the radiation?
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Radiation is a way of treating cancer. Radiation uses beams of energy to destroy cancer cells. With each dose, the tumor gets smaller. The cancer cells die and healthy cells take their place. Radiation may be used alone or with chemotherapy, and may be done before or after surgery.
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According to recent reports, the radiation used during a heart stress test can set off security alarms used in buildings and airports.
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Sarcoidosis is a disease which can affect many organs within the body. It causes the development of granulomas.
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Sarcoidosis is a disease of unknown cause in which inflammation occurs in the lymph nodes, lungs, liver, eyes, skin, or other tissues.The cause of the disease is unknown. Sarcoidosis is marked by abnormal inflammatory masses (granulomas)...
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Is there a link between sarcoidosis and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura? I was diagnosed two years ago with sarcoidosis and am now battling idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.
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The hypothalamus is an area of the brain that produces hormones that control:.Hadley ME, Levine JE. Endocrinology. 6th ed.
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A subarachnoid hemorrhage is an abnormal and very dangerous condition in which blood collects beneath the arachnoid mater, a membrane that covers the brain. This area, called the subarachnoid space, normally contains cerebrospinal fluid.
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Subarachnoid hemorrhage is bleeding in the area between the brain and the thin tissues that cover the brain. This area is called the subarachnoid space.Bleeding from an arteriovenous malformation(AVM) Bleeding disorder Bleeding from a cerebral ane...
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A head injury is any trauma that leads to injury of the scalp, skull, or brain. The injuries can range from a minor bump on the skull to serious brain injury.Head injury is classified as either closed or open(penetrating).A closed head injury mean...
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Detailed information on head injury, including causes, symptoms, types, diagnosis, and treatment
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Detailed information on head injury, including causes, symptoms, types, diagnosis, and treatment
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Head trauma can be fatal. The effects from some types of head trauma may not appear right away. So it's important to get medical attention for any head injury.
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Detailed information on head injury, including causes, symptoms, types, diagnosis, and treatment
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Detailed information on superficial injuries to the face and head In the course of a child's day, minor injuries may occur during play and sports activities. The face and head are especially at risk for cuts, scrapes, and lacerations because:
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A strong blow to the head may cause swelling and bleeding inside the skull. The resulting pressure can injure the brain (concussion). If you have any doubts identifying a concussion, have a healthcare provider check the victim.
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My 4-month-old was hit in the head. It did not cause a big bruise, but then two hours after the incident he threw up twice. In this case should an infant be watched or taken to the emergency room?
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Children hit their heads frequently. Most of the time, the injury is minor, usually involving only the scalp, and nothing needs to be done. Sometimes, the injury is more serious, involving the skull and/or brain inside, and medical attention is required.
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Injury to the head may damage the scalp, skull or brain. The most important consequence of head trauma is traumatic brain injury.
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Hemochromatosis is an inherited blood disorder that causes the body to retain excessive amounts of iron. This iron overload can lead to serious health consequences, most notably cirrhosis of the liver.Hemochromatosis is also known as iron overload...
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Hemochromatosis is a disorder that interferes with the body''s ability to break down iron, and results in too much iron being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.Hemochromatosis occurs when too much iron builds up in the body, particularly the...
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It's a condition in which too much iron is absorbed from food and retained in the body.
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Detailed information on hemochromatosis, including causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment
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Detailed information on autoimmune and metabolic liver disorders, including hemochromatosis (iron overload disease) and Wilson's disease
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Iron tests are a group of blood tests that are done to evaluate the iron level in blood serum, the body''s capacity to absorb iron, and the amount of iron actually stored in the body. Iron is an essential trace element; it is necessary for the form...
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Iron tests consist of four assays performed on serum or plasma to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of iron deficiency or iron overload. These tests are serum iron, total iron binding capacity(TIBC), serum ferritin, and serum transferrin.
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Hemochromatosis is an inherited blood disorder that causes the body to retain excessive amounts of iron. This iron overload can lead to serious health consequences, most notably cirrhosis of the liver.Hemochromatosis is also known as iron overload...
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Hemochromatosis is an inherited blood disorder that causes the body to retain excessive amounts of iron. This iron overload can lead to serious health consequences, most notably cirrhosis of the liver.Hemochromatosis is also known as iron overload...
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Iron is a mineral that the human body uses to produce the red blood cells(hemoglobin) that carry oxygen throughout the body. It is also stored in myoglobin, an oxygen-carrying protein in the muscles that fuels cell growth.Iron is abundant in red m...
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Iron is a vital component of heme, the component of hemoglobin that transports oxygen in the blood. Iron deficiency is the world''s most common cause of anemia(blood with low hemoglobin and red blood cell components).
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A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of tissue in the brain. Unlike other tumors, brain tumors spread by local extension and rarely metastasize(spread) outside the brain.
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This article focuses on primary brain tumors in adults.Primary brain tumors include any tumor that starts in the brain. Tumors may be confined to a small area, invasive(spread to nearby areas), benign(not cancerous), or malignant(cancerous).Tumors...
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Detailed information on brain tumors, including causes, symptoms, diagnosis, types, and treatment
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A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of tissue, either malignant(cancerous) or benign(noncancerous), in the brain. Each year, more than 17,000 brain tumors are diagnosed in the United States.A benign brain tumor is composed of slow-growing noncance...
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Screening tests check for signs of cancer in people who don't have any symptoms. Unfortunately, no screening or blood tests exist that can detect a brain tumor early. The tumor is usually found after symptoms appear. Because brain tumors are rare, screening the majority of the population is neither possible nor justifiable. If you ever experience new symptoms, such as headaches or weakness, see a doctor.
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If you have symptoms of a brain tumor, your doctor will first ask questions about these symptoms. Next, the doctor will get your complete medical history and give you a physical exam. In addition to checking your overall health, the doctor will do a neurological exam to observe the way you walk, talk, and move.
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The brain is a complex organ made up of many different cells and parts. Many types of cancer can form in the brain. The type of brain tumor a person has depends on where it began and the cells it is made of. Doctors call cancer that begins in the brain a primary brain tumor.
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Before your doctor can recommend a treatment plan, he or she needs to know the grade of the cancer. The grade tells these things about the tumor.
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There are many types of brain tumors, including primary and secondary brain tumors. Primary brain tumors are named by the type of brain tissue in which they are found. The most common primary brain tumors are gliomas, which begin in the glial, or supportive, tissue of the brain.
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A brain tumor is a type of cancer. And there are very few things scarier than being told you have cancer. You may feel like you are in shock. You may not even want to believe what the doctor has told you. And there are probably so many questions you want to ask but think you can't because you don't know where to start.
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The members of your health care team will work with you during the course of your treatment. They help guide you through your treatment choices, address your questions and concerns, and give you support. Following are some of the people who make up your health care team, and some of the words you may hear:
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Elaine learned she had a tumor deep within her brain. After recovering from brain surgery, Elaine started getting lost on short trips to the grocery store--the same store she'd been driving to for years. Then she began having trouble with numbers, such as balancing her checkbook. After returning to work, she had trouble focusing on complex tasks. Often she could not remember conversations with coworkers. These problems continued after Elaine switched to an easier position. She eventually quit working altogether.
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Adjusting to your diagnosis and treatment can be hard for both you and your loved ones. It will take time. But there are things you can do to make the process easier.
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Treating your cancer to get the best results is important. But your quality of life also matters. Let your doctor and nurse know if you are experiencing any side effects or discomfort. Make sure you tell your doctor or nurse how these problems affect your day-to-day life. Your healthcare team is there to help you manage your symptoms as well as to treat your cancer.
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When you are being treated for a brain tumor, it is likely that you will have side effects. Depending on how advanced your cancer is, you may also have symptoms of the disease. For instance, cancer that has spread can cause symptoms such as pressure or pain, or it may interfere with the function of an organ.
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The brain controls the body. Each part of the brain has a role. When you have a tumor, the part of the brain surrounding it may be damaged. Then the brain can't do its job properly.
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Surgery is usually the first step in treating a brain tumor. For this treatment, you see a doctor who specializes in surgery on the brain or nerves, called a neurosurgeon. To remove a brain tumor, a neurosurgeon will cut a hole in your skull. It is like making a small window in the skull. This surgery is called a craniotomy.
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Brain tumors often cause symptoms. Also, your treatment is likely to produce some side effects. To help you feel better, your doctor may prescribe medications. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about possible interaction with other medications.
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Certain factors can make one person more likely to get a brain tumor than another person. These are called risk factors. Although such risk factors do exist, a person who has one or more risk factors will not always get a brain tumor. In fact, you can have all the risk factors and still not get a brain tumor, or you can have no known risk factors and still get the disease.
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Because no one knows what causes brain tumors, it is hard to say what will prevent them. You can do certain things to reduce your risk of getting a brain tumor. One thing is to avoid exposure to radiation. If radiation is prescribed to treat another kind of cancer, the benefits it brings in treating that cancer usually outweigh these risks.
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Brain tumors can affect your ability to think, remember, reason, and concentrate. Follow these tips to improve your quality of life and reduce frustration.
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Some people use statistical reports to try to figure out their chance of getting cancer or of being cured. Remember that statistics show what happens with large groups of people. Because no two people are alike, statistics can't be used to know or predict what will happen to you.
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Brain tumor symptoms depend on the size and location of the tumor. These symptoms are caused by the damage the tumor does to specific parts of the brain.
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Different types of brain tumor treatments have different goals. Here is a list of treatments and their goals.
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Researchers are finding new treatments for brain tumors. People with brain tumors now have more hope for living longer than ever before.
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Chemotherapy uses anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells. The drugs are made to attack and kill cells that divide rapidly. Cancer cells divide rapidly, as do some normal cells. Chemotherapy can affect those rapidly dividing normal cells in the body. Normal cells may be affected based on these factors.
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Survival rates show the percentage of people with a certain type and stage of cancer who survive it for a certain period of time after they are diagnosed. A 5-year survival rate is the percentage of people who are alive 5 years after they are diagnosed. These are the people it includes.
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Here are some frequently asked questions about brain tumors. Q: What is the brain, and how does it work?
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Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of various childhood brain tumors.
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Side effects of chemotherapy depend on the type and amount of drugs you take and the length of your treatment. Because chemotherapy drugs kill rapidly dividing cells, the drugs can damage healthy cells that divide quickly, such as blood cells or cells of the intestinal tract, as well. This can result in low white blood cell numbers, which may increase your risk of infection.
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Detailed information on brain tumors, including causes, symptoms, diagnosis, types, and treatment
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Detailed information on brain tumors, including causes, symptoms, diagnosis, types, and treatment
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Brain surgery treats problems in the brain and the structures around it through an opening(craniotomy) in the skull(cranium).Craniotomy; Surgery- brain; Neurosurgery; Craniectomy; Stereotactic craniotomy; Stereotactic brain biopsy; Endoscopic cran...
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After growing up in inner-city Detroit, Ben Carson, M.D., became one of the nation's top pediatric neurosurgeons.
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Histiocytosis is a general name for a group of syndromes that involve an abnormal increase in the number of immune cells called histiocytes.Langerhans cell histiocytosis, which is also called histiocytosis X Malignant histiocytosis syndrome(now kn...
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Histiocytosis X is a generic term that refers to an increase in the number of histiocytes, a type of white blood cell that acts as a scavenger to remove foreign material from the blood and tissues. Research that demonstrated Langerhans cell involv...
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Histiocytosis X is a generic term that refers to an increase in the number of histiocytes, a type of white blood cell, that act as scavengers to remove foreign material from the blood and tissues. Since recent research demonstrated Langerhans cell...
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Histiocytosis X is a generic term that refers to an increase in the number of histiocytes, a type of white blood cell, that act as scavengers to remove foreign material from the blood and tissues. Since recent research demonstrated Langerhan cell ...
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